A study on graphene resistors: how material science and our industry helped make a technical innovation for the ages

1. Abstract

Graphene, a monolayer of carbon atoms arranged in a two-dimensional hexagonal lattice, has emerged as a transformative material in the realm of electronics due to its unparalleled electrical conductivity, thermal management properties, and mechanical strength. This paper provides a critical review of the practicality of graphene resistors, comparing graphene resistors to other materials such as copper and other metal oxides. The paper evaluates graphene’s ability to enable more energy-efficient electronic systems and minimize e-waste generation. This article aims to provide a holistic understanding of graphene resistors as both a technological innovation.

2. Introduction

Resistors are essential electronic components used to control current, create voltage drops, and stabilize circuits. Conventional resistors, built from metal films or metal oxides, face challenges in meeting the evolving needs of modern electronics, such as miniaturization, improving heat dissipation, and environmental sustainability. In light of these challenges, researchers have turned to graphene (developed by Andre Geim and Konstatin Novoselov), a single atomic layer of carbon arranged in a hexagonal lattice [1] , as seen in Figure 1 [2], which exhibits exceptional carrier mobility, thermal conductivity, and mechanical strength.

Graphenes’s theoretical properties promise lower energy losses and enhanced stability even when devices are miniaturized or subjected to extreme conditions. This review critically evaluates whether graphene resistors can transition from a laboratory curiosity to a practical component in modern electronics.

3. Properties of Graphene

3.1 Electrical Conductivity
Graphene’s unparalleled electrical performance stems from its two-dimensional honeycomb lattice of sp²-bonded carbon atoms, which supports a delocalized π-electron network enabling near–ballistic transport. In their seminal work, Bolotin et al. mechanically exfoliated graphene flakes onto silicon oxide substrates and fabricated Hall-bar devices by electron-beam lithography. Using a four-terminal measurement in a cryogenic probe station, they observed carrier mobilities exceeding 200,000 cm²/V·s at 4 K, with minimal impurity- and edge-scattering even as the channel width was reduced to 20 nm. Crucially, this experiment demonstrated that size-scaling down to dimensions relevant for nanoscale resistors does not catastrophically degrade performance, suggesting that graphene could enable submicron resistor elements with sheet resistances under 30 Ω/sq (ohms per square) which is a value inaccessible to conventional thin-film metals [4].

Building on this, Nair et al. combined optical transmittance spectroscopy with four-probe conductivity measurements to compare graphene’s specific conductivity against that of copper. By correlating the 2.3% per-layer optical absorption of graphene with its sheet resistance, they quantified an intrinsic conductivity several orders of magnitude greater than bulk copper when normalized by thickness. This result not only underscores graphene’s potential to dramatically reduce Joule heating in resistive elements but also highlights a path toward ultrathin, transparent resistors—key for applications in see-through or flexible electronics [5]
 

3.2 Thermal Conductivity
The superior thermal conductivity of graphene—measured at up to 5,000 W/m·K using Raman optothermal methods—originates from long-mean-free-path acoustic phonons in its two-dimensional lattice. Balandin et al. suspended graphene monolayers over micrometer-scale trenches and used a focused Raman laser both to heat the membrane and to monitor the resultant phonon frequency shifts. By fitting temperature-dependent Raman shifts to heat-diffusion models, they extracted an in-plane thermal conductivity of approximately 3,000–5,000 W/m·K at room temperature—over ten times that of copper ( around 400 W/m·K) [3]. This extraordinary heat-spreading capability implies that graphene resistors can efficiently dissipate localized Joule heat, reducing thermal hotspots and lowering device failure rates, showing that graphene can be a viable material in electronics.

3.3 Mechanical Strength and Flexibility
To probe graphene’s viability for flexible electronics, researchers have explored its performance under repeated mechanical deformation. In a representative study, graphene traces patterned onto polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrates were subjected to thousands of bending cycles, mimicking the mechanical stresses experienced in wearable sensors or foldable displays. Even after 1,000 cycles at a bending radius of just 5 mm, the electrical resistance of the graphene structures changed by less than 5%, a stark contrast to traditional metal-film resistors, which typically degrade by over 50% under similar conditions due to cracking or delamination. This outstanding fatigue resistance is rooted in graphene’s unique combination of atomic thinness, high in-plane tensile strength (~130 GPa), and intrinsic flexibility (with a Young’s modulus of ~1 TPa). Notably, unlike brittle oxide-based or ceramic films, monolayer graphene can conform to curvilinear surfaces without mechanical failure, and it recovers elastically even after repeated strain. These characteristics are critical in emerging applications (such as smart textiles, implantable biosensors, and foldable consumer electronics) where consistent electrical performance must be maintained under dynamic stress. Graphene’s durability under flexural strain is not just a novelty of its mechanical strength but a functional advantage that enables reliable resistor integration in future-proof, flexible technologies. As materials science continues to push the boundaries of flexible device engineering, graphene stands out as one of the few materials that balances conductivity, resilience, and scalability at the nanoscale, making it a material that could be used in electronics. [6]

3.4 Environmental Stability
Materials being evaluated for electronic components are expected to satisfy high environmental stability assessments. Traditional electronic components made from carbon and metal oxides experience degradation in moist or corrosive conditions, leading to increased resistance values and diminished reliability in electronic devices. On the other hand, due to its exceptional stability properties, graphene protects itself against environmental conditions involving humidity and UV radiation. The durability of graphene resistors remains high during extended periods due to their resistance to environmental factors. 

Pinargote et al. (2020) evaluated the electrical performance and mechanical flexibility of graphene by comparing it to conventional conductive materials such as steel, copper, and conductive paper. Using electrochemical exfoliation to synthesize graphene nanosheets, the researchers created thin, flexible films that were tested for conductivity, stability, and durability. Their findings showed that graphene exhibited superior current-carrying capacity and thermal stability compared to steel and copper, while also being far lighter and more flexible. When compared to conductive paper, graphene demonstrated significantly lower resistance and greater resilience to bending and environmental exposure. These results underscore graphene’s potential as a lightweight, energy-efficient alternative for use in next-generation electronics, wearables, and flexible solar cells. The results are displayed in Table 1 [7] which confirms that graphene films outperform copper and conductive paper in conductivity and flexibility, suggesting their superior suitability for flexible electronics.

Table 1: Data table created by Pinagorte et al.

4. Environmental and Industrial Impact

4.1 Alignment with UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
The integration of graphene resistors into next-generation electronics is closely aligned with several United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), seventeen of which are shown in Figure 2 [8], reinforcing the material’s significance not just as a technological breakthrough but also as a contributor to global sustainability. Graphene’s direct support for SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) arises from its ability to minimize energy losses in electronic systems, enhancing the overall efficiency of renewable energy systems like photovoltaic inverters or battery management circuits.

Its alignment with SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure) is evident in its role in enabling novel device architectures—such as flexible or transparent electronics—that promote resilient, cutting-edge infrastructure development. By enabling longer-lasting and more efficient components, graphene resistors also reduce raw material consumption and landfill contributions, contributing to SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production).

Furthermore, the use of bio-derived graphene synthesis routes contributes to SDG 13 (Climate Action) by lowering greenhouse gas emissions associated with material production. If scaled appropriately, graphene production from renewable biomass or industrial byproducts could create a material ecosystem where high-performance electronics are both recyclable and sustainably sourced.

4.2 Environmental Impact of Graphene
A study in 2021 by Munuera et al., reviewed ways to produce graphene in a sustainable way using life cycle assessments (LCA) of various graphene production methods. Their methodology involved gathering and synthesizing LCA data from multiple peer-reviewed studies and technical reports covering common graphene synthesis techniques. These include Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD), chemical oxidation and reduction (i.e., Hummers’ method), electrochemical exfoliation, ball milling, and biomass or waste-derived pyrolysis. The authors categorized each method based on energy consumption, material inputs (like solvents, acids, or metal catalysts), scalability, and carbon feedstock origin (e.g., graphite vs. biomass waste). The scope of analysis was largely “cradle-to-gate,” meaning it encompassed all inputs and emissions from raw material acquisition to the point at which graphene is produced, without including product use or disposal stages. Functional units were normalized to 1 gram of graphene produced, and environmental indicators like Global Warming Potential (GWP), energy demand (in MJ), and chemical toxicity were evaluated to compare different routes. Notably, the review also integrates comparative sustainability indicators, such as resource renewability and potential for recycling solvents or reusing chemical inputs, providing a more holistic framework for evaluating the feasibility of greener graphene production at scale. [9]

The review reveals significant variation in the environmental footprint of different graphene production methods, with energy consumption and solvent toxicity emerging as critical sustainability bottlenecks. CVD, while capable of producing high-quality monolayer graphene suitable for electronics, exhibits the highest GWP due to high temperature requirements (greater than 1000 degrees Celsius) and the use of materials like methane and acetylene (both can cause warming). In contrast, liquid-phase exfoliation and electrochemical methods show reduced energy demands but rely heavily on toxic solvents or acids, increasing chemical waste and potential environmental harm. Ball milling, a mechanical method that avoids solvents, still incurs substantial energy use due to prolonged grinding times. While these processes offer sustainability advantages by using renewable or waste feedstocks, they still require post-treatment purification steps and sometimes significant thermal energy inputs. Across the board, the review finds that most existing LCAs fail to include end-of-life impacts or benefits gained from application-specific energy savings, underestimating the long-term ecological trade-offs or gains of graphene use in industrial components like resistors or electronics. [9]

The trade-off between sustainability of the inputs (feedstock, energy source, chemicals) and efficiency of the outputs (quality, scalability, durability) defines the environmental implications of the production of graphene to a large extent. Graphene production through CVD is a big ordeal on the environment because of the use of gasses and energy requiring thermal conductivity that resources fossil fuel and produces a high amount of carbon dioxide per gram of graphene output. Although this is a route that provides ultra-clean, electronics-grade graphene, its present environmental footprint is poor, without downstream advantages in device performance, it is an undesirable pathway. Conversely, biomass-based and exfoliation-based methods have a relatively lower emission rate and are more compliant with the idea of the circular economy since they convert recycled carbon sources or by-products. Nevertheless, the approaches tend to result in graphene of lower quality (e.g. with higher defect densities) which restricts its use in high precision electronic or nanoresistors. On top of that, more hazardous toxin and pollutant production through the use of substances such as oxidation with H 2 SO 4 and KMnO 4 creates toxicity and waste control concerns. The authors express the claim that use of greener solvents, enhanced reagents recycling, and renewable energy use might create substantial effects on the life cycles. Notably, the review emphasizes that the majority of LCA studies stop at the production phase, leaving a knowledge gap in understanding how graphene’s superior thermal and electrical properties may offset its environmental cost when applied in energy-saving or long-lasting technologies. [9]

4.3 Industrial Impact of Graphene  
A study by Michel et al. in 2017 introduces a methodology for producing high-performance graphene resistors using an additive manufacturing technique being inkjet printing. This fabrication strategy was carefully chosen to align with industrial scalability and cost-efficiency demands. The researchers formulated a graphene-based conductive ink by dispersing graphene flakes into a liquid medium with optimized viscosity and surface tension. These parameters are critical to ensuring stable droplet formation, precise deposition, and high-resolution patterning using commercial inkjet printing heads. By adjusting the number of print passes and annealing conditions, the team controlled the thickness and conductivity of the printed traces, achieving fine-tuned electrical characteristics. The use of flexible substrates such as polyimide not only demonstrated mechanical resilience but also suggested a clear route toward applications in wearable and conformal electronics. This methodology provides an accessible and repeatable path for industrial integration, offering low-cost, maskless, and rapid fabrication compatible with roll-to-roll manufacturing, thereby overcoming traditional lithographic limitations. [10]

The performance underscores the transformative potential of graphene resistors in electronic systems. Most notably, the printed devices exhibited a near-zero temperature coefficient of resistance, indicating that resistance remained nearly constant over a wide temperature range. This thermal invariance is a major advancement over conventional resistors like nickel-chromium or carbon composites, which typically exhibit significant resistance fluctuations with temperature changes—posing reliability issues in sensitive electronics. Additionally, the resistors handled continuous power loads up to 10 watts, a benchmark that exceeds the capabilities of many printed electronics and rival thin-film technologies. This suggests strong utility in power electronics and industrial control systems. The activation energy for charge transport (~2.4 meV) is remarkably low, highlighting that the electrons move with minimal energy barriers—enabling efficient, stable conduction. These results validate graphene as a serious contender for high-performance resistive components, not only in lab settings but also in mission-critical industrial electronics where high power and temperature stability are paramount. [10]

The implications of these findings for industrial deployment are profound. Flexible and thermally stale resistors have applications across a diverse set of fields such as wearable healthcare devices, flexible sensors, automotive parts, and more. In automotive or aerospace environments where electronic systems are subjected to significant vibration and thermal fluctuation, graphene resistors can deliver stable resistance values and long-term durability. Their thermal consistency reduces the need for complex compensation circuits, lowering design complexity and improving reliability. Moreover, in consumer electronics—particularly those with curved or flexible form factors such as smart textiles, bendable displays, and mobile devices—graphene resistors can be directly embedded without compromising form or function. The inkjet-printing process further allows on-demand fabrication and circuit customization, appealing to markets requiring rapid prototyping and small-batch production, such as medical diagnostics or space instrumentation. These attributes together signal that graphene resistors are not simply a novel material innovation, but a pivotal enabler of next-generation electronics infrastructure. [10]

Despite their promise, graphene resistors are not without limitations when considering full industrial deployment. First, while inkjet printing offers customization and scalability, maintaining uniform layer thickness and flake alignment across large substrates remains a technical challenge. Inconsistent droplet placement or drying-induced defects can lead to variability in resistance, which is unacceptable in high-precision systems. Second, the long-term reliability of these resistors in harsh environmental conditions—such as high humidity, UV exposure, and chemical stress—must be rigorously tested before use in aerospace or medical environments. Encapsulation techniques may mitigate some of these risks but could introduce new thermal or mechanical constraints. Furthermore, while graphene inks show excellent conductivity, their performance still lags behind that of some metal-based inks (e.g., silver or copper) in terms of absolute conductivity, potentially limiting their use in high-speed or high-frequency circuits. Nonetheless, the technological foundation laid by this study is robust. With continued research into ink formulation, interface engineering, and environmental protection, graphene resistors can emerge as a sustainable and high-performance alternative to conventional materials in industrial electronics, aligning with broader goals of reducing material waste and increasing design flexibility in manufacturing. [10]

Conclusion

Graphene resistors show great promise to change modern technology because of their remarkable features for practical applications. Material science and electronics are undergoing a substantial change through the advancement of graphene resistors. However, widespread production remains a major obstacle since effective sustainable and cost-efficient production methods have yet to be established. Researched techniques, like through liquid-phase exfoliation and bio-based synthesis methods, have shown promising results in producing high-quality graphene at sizable quantities. Even with these technological advancements, technical issues related to the integration of graphene resistors into current electronic systems require many more innovative solutions from materials engineering and electronics design perspectives. Despite these issues, the positive outlook for graphene resistors remains strong despite existing manufacturing technical difficulties. The development of more efficient production methods alongside sustainable requirements will reduce costs and permit graphene-based components  in practical,  industrial-scale applications. Integration of graphene resistors in energy-efficient technologies coupled with renewable energy systems will help reduce energy usage along with electronic waste production, assisting sustainability targets worldwide.

To achieve graphene resistors’ maximum potential, scientists would need to study their material characteristics and creatively design tailored large-scale production techniques. Government policies together with industry collaboration will strategically develop the necessary environment for graphene technologies to reach their full potential. Additional applications of graphene resistors open doors to a greener sustainable power system as well as an energy-efficient future.

About the Authors 

Dr. Raj Shah is a Director at Koehler Instrument Company in New York, Holtsville, NY. He is an elected Fellow by his peers at  ASTM, IChemE, CMI, STLE, AIC, NLGI, INSTMC, AOCS, Institute of Physics, The Energy Institute and  The Royal Society of Chemistry. An ASTM Eagle award recipient, Dr. Shah recently coedited the bestseller, “Fuels and Lubricants handbook”, details of which are available at ASTM’s Long-Awaited Fuels and Lubricants Handbook 2nd Edition Now Available (https://bit.ly/3u2e6GY).He earned his doctorate in Chemical Engineering from The Pennsylvania State University and is a Fellow from The Chartered Management Institute, London. Dr. Shah is also a Chartered Scientist with the Science Council, a Chartered Petroleum Engineer with the Energy Institute and a Chartered Engineer with the Engineering council, UK. Dr. Shah was recently granted the honourific of “Eminent engineer” with Tau beta Pi, the largest engineering society in the USA. He is on the Advisory board of directors at Farmingdale university (Mechanical Technology) , Auburn Univ ( Tribology ), SUNY, Farmingdale, (Engineering Management) and State university of NY, Stony Brook ( Chemical engineering/ Material Science and engineering). An Adjunct Professor at the State University of New York, Stony Brook, in the Department of Material Science and Chemical engineering, Raj also has approximately 700 publications and has been active in the energy industry for over 3 decades. More information on Raj can be found at https://bit.ly/3QvfaLX
Contact: rshah@koehlerinstrument.com 

Mr. Parth Patel and Mr. Beau Eng are both part of a sought after engineering internship program at Koehler Instrument company in Holtsville, NY.

References

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